Essay about The Role of the Media in Rwandas Violence

Many situations and acts that are unacceptable need a stressor. Stressors are situations and/or events that lead to a catastrophic outcome, such as the Rwanda genocide. The tension between both the Hutu and Tutsi already existed; it only needed something to reach its breaking point – a stressor. On April 6, 1994, the plane that occupied Juvenal Habyarimana, President of Rwanda, and Cyprien Ntaryamina, President of Burundi crashed due to unexplained circumstances. Over the next three months in Rwanda after the crash carrying both Presidents, mass killings began to occur. The kill count escaladed dramatically leaving one million Rwandans dead and two million seeking refugee status among its neighbors: Zaire, Tanzania, and Burundi (Kellow and†¦show more content†¦In the beginning Radio Libre de Mille Collines (RTLM) was not the main source of media coverage, Radio Rwanda was considered the â€Å"official† government station. Thanks to President Habyarimana, Radio Rwanda had been able to broadcast, using the palace – directly across the street from the station – as a direct line in case the power failed. RTLM managed to gain access to this direct line that gradually faded out Radio Rwanda’s signals to a minimal broadcasting network. Through this Radio Rwanda had minimal influence and responsibility over the inflammatory messages RTLM broadcasted making them the main voice of ethnic hatred (Kellow and Steeves 1998, 118). The main source for inflammatory comments and snide remarks situated from RTLM. The stations continuous references and language such as vigilant, fight or kill, defend, and/or exterminate only aided in fanning the flames during the times of low genocide when the kill count dropped in numbers. The constant reference to inyenzi (or cockroach – a term used to describe Tutsi rebels and Tutsi civilians) directed its comments to a particular group, the Tutsi (Straus 2007, 623). Radio can only be deemed effective if there is an audience to broadcast towards. If there is no audience radio broadcasting becomes pointless and ineffective. Its effectiveness is achieved through their popularity and through viewers acceptance of what is being presented. RTLM immediately attracted a large audience, especiallyShow MoreRelatedThe Genocide Of The Rwandan Genocide Essay1711 Words   |  7 PagesFrom The Rwandan Genocide*, he investigates how mass media played a role in the conflict and sponsored violence. Specifically the article focuses on how a popular radio station, the Radio Tà ©là ©vision Libre des Mille Collines or RTLM, encouraged an estimated 51,000 perpetrators from both the militia groups and civilians, or 10% of the overall violence. There are two main mechanisms that Yanagizawa-Drott believe fueled the participation in the violence, â€Å"First, in line with the literature on persuasiveRead MoreRed Cross Involvement Of The Rwandan Genocide1712 Words   |  7 Pagesexclusive role is to protect the lives and self-respect of victims of conflict and internal violence and to offer them aid (Moorehead, 1999). The Red Cross directs and coordinates the international relief activities conducted by the Movement in situations of conflict. It also aims to avoid misery by upholding and strengthening humanitarian law and worldwide charitable values and has its actions overseen by various protocols and convention resolutions. The role of Red Cross in Rwanda’s GenocideRead More Roots of the Rwandan Genocide1739 Words   |  7 Pagesgenocide was also fueled by political factors and social conditions. Rwanda is the smallest sub-Saharan country with a population of about 7 million inhabitants. Although the indigenous peoples of Rwanda are the Twa, they are now the minority. 90% of Rwandas population is comprised of Hutus, and the rest of the populations majority consists of Tutsi people. Hatred between the two ethnic groups had begun in the pre-colonial era, which was long before the 20th century. The gruesome events of the genocideRead MoreThe Genocide Of Rwanda s Tutsi Minority1783 Words   |  8 Pagesextermination campaign targeted at the Tutsi minority and â€Å"moderate Hutus† was orchestrated by specific, influential architects -Hutu hardliners of the Habyarimana’s inner circle. This power clique was accountable for the systematic annihilation of Rwanda’s Tutsi minority, an approximate of over half a million civilian lives. Although there are numerous misleading accounts of the genocide that are constructed on the notion that the â€Å"ancient tribal hatred† triggered and sustained the mass-slaughteringRead MorePolitical Governance in Rwanda904 Words   |  4 PagesPolitical Governance in Rwanda I. Summary: Rawanda a country titled Genocide, massacre, poverty, discrimination, corruption, and violence. However, Rawanda have been receiving considerable amount of funds from international community despite being a dictatorship along with miserable human rights record and instability in region. Rwanda is facing one of the most serious problems with its political governance. Due to dictatorship there is little attention on vast majority and day by day people areRead MoreThe Genocide Of The Rwandan Genocide1421 Words   |  6 PagesPresident Paul Kagame took effective steps in increasing the economy and the International Monetary Fund I.M.F reports than on average the economy as grown 8% annually. The United Nations and Western powers would be criticized and questioned for their roles and lack of involvement and aid in the Rwandan Genocide despite full knowledge of the genocide before and during its occurrence. The UN would then outline a five-point action plan for preventing genocide. Alison Des Forges wrote that ten years afterRead MoreThe Rwandan Genocide And The Genocide1637 Words   |  7 Pagessome 2,500 men, with impressive firepower and equipment, came into eastern Rwanda where they created a safe humanitarian zone. Additionally, the US refrained from using the word genocide because of fear from causing panic (Lemarchand). Instead the media in the US reported the events occurring in Rwanda as â€Å"acts of genocide†. By not calling the terrible events in Rwanda a genocide, the US believed that it had no obligation to intervene. Later on in 1998 President Bill Clinton expressed his regretsRead MoreThe Rwandan Genocide1188 Words   |  5 Pagesgroups: the Tutsi, Hutu, and Twa, which were a very small group of hunters and gatherers. Out of those three groups, the Tutsi occupied 10 percent of powerful leadership roles, which upset the Hutus (20th Century History). After the Germans invaded, Rwanda struggled for independence from Belgium. The Hutus, who were the majority of Rwanda’s population, were put in charge by the Rwandan government. This upset the Tutsis, since they both wanted power. This conflict continued for decades. Before his tragicRead MoreThe Rwandan Genocide : A Perspective Analysis Through Media1166 Words   |  5 PagesJordon Jones Genocides in Comparative Historical Perspective 01:090:292:01 Professor Douglas Greenberg Final Paper 6 December 2015 The Rwandan Genocide: A Perspective Analysis Through Media â€Å"The Tutsis are collaborators with the Belgian colonists. They stole our land. They whipped us. Now they have come back, these Tutsi rebels. They are murderers. They are cockroaches. Rwanda is our Hutu Land. We must squash the infestation. This is RTLM, Hutu Power Radio. Stay Alert. Watch your neighborsRead MoreThe Genocide Of The Rwandan And Tutsi Tribes, Colonialism As The Catalyst For Genocide Essay1243 Words   |  5 PagesThese journals and articles discuss with more detail Rwanda’s History, the history of the Hutu and the Tutsi tribes, Colonialism as the catalyst for genocide in Rwanda. The area this paper will focus on is the role of the media during that time. My goal in this paper is to expand what I read from the course about Genocide in Rwanda into a larger discussion about how media and more specifically radio played a significanant role in inciting violence against the Tutsi. To achieve this goal, I have organized

Racial, Racial And Linguistic Conflict - 1559 Words

Schools have regularly been places of political, racial and linguistic conflict between most the population and mainly the Latino/ Mexican groups. Latinos today are understated of schools such as high school and college graduation rates and even college entrance examinations. For Hispanics in the United States, the instructive experience is one of collected drawback. Numerous Hispanic understudies start formalized tutoring without the financial and social assets that numerous different understudies get, and schools are frequently poorly prepared to make up for these underlying aberrations (Rivera 2002). For Hispanics, starting burdens regularly originate from guardians foreigner and financial status and their absence of information about the U.S. instruction framework. As Hispanic understudies continue through the tutoring framework, insufficient school assets and their feeble associations with their instructors keep on undermining their scholarly achievement. Starting burdens keep on accumulating, bringing about Hispanics are having the most reduced rates of secondary school and higher education achievement, which obstructs their odds for stable work. The circumstance of Hispanic instructive achievement is reason for national concern. (Rivera 2002) Families in which guardians essential dialect at home is Spanish have particularly low rates of cooperation in education exercises. Concerning perusing to kids at least three times each week, Hispanic families in whichShow MoreRelated National Conflict and Dispute Essay1560 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Disputes and conflicts are mostly caused by race, gender, culture, language, ideologies and religion. These factors are inter-related for it shows the differences of people in every way that causes arguments, debates and misunderstanding either internationally or locally. Numerous times of debates and advocacy between who is dominant and who is subordinate has been a great input in the making of our history which until now, is still being added. Disputes and conflicts in this era is justRead MoreLanguage Ideology And Language Prejudice By Rosina Lippi-Green1066 Words   |  5 Pagestheir lives. The two different articles â€Å"Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice† and â€Å"Introduction: don’t we still have to prove our humanity† operate as a supporting argument for Lippi-Green’s claims. They support the idea that different languages, such as Ebonics is not recognized as a standard language. Thus, causing many people in society to not be familiarized of the language and the set of rules they possess. The first article, â€Å"Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice† by John Baugh, clarifies theRead MoreRace And Ethnicity Are Integral Parts Of America905 Words   |  4 Pagesimmutable and distinct species, sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution, temperament, and mental abilities. Race and its ideology about human differences began out of the context of African slavery. African-Americans are known to be â€Å"genetically inferior.† In contemporary American society, ideas of racial inferiority have been institution alized within our laws, government, and public policies. Conceptions of race, as well as specific racial groupings are often controversial due to theirRead MoreRacial Discrimination On Minority Groups1498 Words   |  6 PagesPractically, every country in the universe has a minority populace that can be either national, ethnic, linguistic, or a religious group. Minority concerns have been on the itinerary of the United Nations for more than half a century. In 1948, the General Assembly asserted that the United Nations could not remain detached to the providence of minorities. That explicates why the 2005 World Summit Outcome reaffirmed the rights of minorities and advocacy to the efforts of the United Nations (ZandenRead MoreRace, Ethnicity, Prejudice818 Words   |  4 Pagesyour sixteen great-great grandparents was of African descent (and the other fifteen were of white European descent), you were defined as negro. In Jamaica, people believed to be of pure African descent are de scribed as black. People who are bi-racial are usually described as colored. In Brazil, there are even more differentiations of those believed to be of African descent. The point of all this is that our definitions are culture-bound and socially constructed. 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Racial justice is a proactive reinforcement of policies, practices, attitudes and actions that produce equitable power, access, opportunities, treatment, impacts and outcomes for all. Most of us have heard the reference that is racist, but what doesRead MoreMulticultural Competence Of School Psychologists1031 Words   |  5 Pagesdemographics in rural and urban communities and in public and private educational institutions, as well as among students who are homeschooled. These changes have produced a new generation of multilingual, multiracial children with racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic differences; multiple learning styles; native language learning; and changing family constellations. Some of today’s learners also come from families with multiple and/or generational family traumas and dysfunctions. These challengesRead MoreAsdfghjkl894 Words   |  4 Pages Latino/a Sociology * Marxist Sociology * Mathematical Sociology * Medical Sociology * Organizations, Occupations, amp; Work * Peace, War, amp; Social Conflict * Political Sociology * Political Economy of the World-Systems * Race, Gender, amp; Class * Racial and Ethnic * Minorities Science, * Knowledge, amp; Technology * Sex and Gender * Social Psychology * Sociological Practice * Sociological Theory Read MoreSample Of Application Essay1099 Words   |  5 Pagesmy background in teaching French language and European cultural values, translating and editing non-fiction, experience in interdisciplinary and intercultural research on the relationship between France and New Caledonia, my passion for French linguistics, and my enthusiasm for teamwork make me a perfect fit. As a Belgian Australian, I am fully competent in French, English and Dutch. I lived in Wallonia, the French-speaking part of Belgium and New Caledonia for several years, where I was involved

Reckless Driving and Drug Addiction-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Write a 250 word news article (inverted pyramid) based on the information below. You must include a headline, standfirst, and, of course, a lead sentence. Incident: Two-car accident on LKSA Highway. Answer: Car Bumped into each other in Highway: Reckless Driving and Drug Addiction 17 Feb 2018, 2.45am: Two cars collided in a disastrous manner due to reckless driving at 2:45am on LKSA Highway, one was a Toyota Vios the other being a 2007 Honda City injuring Samirah Ali and Chee Wai Lynn the later a minor, who were later released after being treated with minor injuries. The incident of hasty driving brought to the forefront teenage drug addictions and its adverse impacts on the society at large. Police recovered drugs from Chees car and authorities suspect that the accident was mainly a consequence of drug overdose. The cars were allegedly moving towards the direction of Shah Alam city centre when they knocked against each other. According to sources, Samirah Ali, a 19 years old studying at Taylors University belonging from the town of Ipoh, Perak was later taken to Darul Ehsan Medical Centre to be treated for minor injuries. Both of the victims were later on escorted to the police station from where they were dispatched over to their respective parents. One of the traffic authorities, who wished to maintain anonymity, showed concern for the prevalent consumption of drugs especially by the children belonging from respectable family background. He added that Chee Wai Lynn is the daughter of the schools PIBG president who smashed in a menacing manner in front of the Toyota Vios. The traffic sergeant clearly had little or no faith in the conveyance of news through the light of media as he further added You dont use my name. You media ghouls are all alike Bibliography List: Emde, K., Klimmt, C., Schluetz, D. M. (2016). Does storytelling help adolescents to process the news? A comparison of narrative news and the inverted pyramid. Journalism Studies, 17(5), 608-627. Yaffe, P. (2017). How to improve your writing by standing on your head. Ubiquity, 2017(June), 1.

Middle Range Theory in Nursing Essay Example For Students

Middle Range Theory in Nursing Essay Needless to say, any profession may be defined as credible only in case it has the potential to develop a theoretical background to address the needs of society. Nevertheless, nursing is built mainly on the applicability of practical skills in health care rather than theoretical studies. Therefore, to make sure that the nurses occupy a dominant place in the health care industry and society rather than subordinate, it is crucial to understand the importance of the mentioned theories and increase the overall importance of research in the industry of health care. Outline1 What is  the middle range theory?2 Why do middle-range theories matter?3 Some types of middle range theory  in nursing3.1 Theories of uncertainty3.2 Theory of meaning3.3 Theory of self-transcendence3.4 Theory of cultural marginality4 Conclusion What is  the middle range theory? Middle range theory  presents  interconnected ideas related to the actual practice of nursing. This set includes a number of theoretical studies needed for the nurses to their professional development.   As far as the enhancement of these theories is concerned, they develop at the point where practice and pure middle range theories  overlap in health care. One should understand that particular theories are an inevitable part of the discipline’s structure to enhance its position in society. Approximately twenty years ago, the development of the particular theories became relatively common in nursing.   Besides, in comparison to other theoretical studies, they are more limited.   Therefore, middle range theory  in nursing addresses  the sufficient knowledge of this discipline and assist in expanding and clarifying particular phenomena in society related to the overall industry of health care. Why do middle-range theories matter? The autonomy of practitioners. First, the nurses would be much more autonomous when a number of practices are conceptualized with the help of particular theories. Hence, the role of the practitioners in society will also be enhanced. The extensive research in nursing. Middle-range theories in nursing have already become the basis needed for nursing practice and research. When the authority of Nursing as a discipline is enhanced in society, the gap between nursing practice and science due to particular theories will be finally narrowed. These days, there exists the concept of â€Å"praxis† in health care used to refer to the important combination of theory-research practice that exists in the patient-nurse encounter. The development of strong practice. It would be anticipated that with the development of innovative practices that take place in modern society and the system of health care, a number of nurses applying theory will grow. Therefore, theory-guided practice will contribute not only to the development of nursing but also will improve the quality of care provided by the nurses and the patient’s wellness. Some types of middle range theory  in nursing Theories of uncertainty We will write a custom essay on Middle Range Theory in Nursing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now These particular theories were created to address the possible uncertainty that may occur. The theory presumes that uncertainty is an inevitable part of any illness situation, which is always unpredictable and may be influenced by a number of events in society. Also, the theory explains how the patients subjectively interpret their illness and relate it to possible treatments and outcomes. Theory of meaning This type assists the nurses in discovering meaning for the patients facing a number of life challenges. Many professionals in the sphere of healthcare use this particular theory in society, first of all, to understand the nature of a number of life stresses, one’s behavior and way of thinking when life-changing events take place, and the concept of human suffering. The application of this theory has also evolved from the individual level to groups and to the well-being of a whole society. .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 , .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .postImageUrl , .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 , .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:hover , .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:visited , .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:active { border:0!important; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:active , .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565 .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u489d1e470e85784378d00daac80f1565:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Salvador Dali: The Conqest Of The Irrational EssayTheory of self-transcendence The primary goal of this particular theory is to create an important framework needed for practice to promote well-being among the patients during a number of difficult life situations, especially when people face loss or life-limiting health issues. Therefore, these particular theories deepen one’s understanding of the patients’ psychology and help the nurses to deal with a number of issues. Theory of cultural marginality It goes without saying that with the increased level of globalization, a number of patients who are immigrants in a particular country continue to increase. At the same time, the chances that a culture conflict will occur also become stronger. Being caught between cultures, a patient faces a number of impacts on his or her health. The essence of the theory of cultural marginality is to give an important answer to the question how the practitioners may ease one’s experience in a new society to minimize the occurrence of culture conflict. The theory underlines not only the difficulties a person faces living between cultures, but also tries to find the link between the challenges in a new society and immigrant well-being. Therefore, it has direct relevance to real-world practice and research, especially when a culture conflict takes place. Conclusion Therefore, it is crucial for the nursing profession to continue the research on a number of middle-range theories and their place in society. Reconsidering the model developed during the concept building process, a number of middle range theories  create logical backgrounds for the practitioners interested in studying the psychology of the patients when they face different issues, including culture conflicts. Particular middle range theories guide day-to-day practice and scholarly research needed in nursing.   The coexistence of various types of theories in nursing show logical relationships between the studies and applies them directly to practice. Besides, the particular theories discussed above and many other theories that were not mentioned provide consistent information needed to develop a deepened realizing of research in nursing in society. Therefore, middle range theories  present new opportunities for expanding nursing through the coexistence of research and theory, ad dressing possible culture conflicts, and identifying many other problems of health care.

Microbiology Notes free essay sample

His masterpiece sculptor â€Å"David†, was made between 1501 and 1504 C. He was a French sculptor and poet D. Created the famous fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome Branches of Microbiology Medical Microbiology Industrial Microbiology Environmental Microbiology Agricultural Microbiology Legumes +N2-fixing microorganisms Microorganisms have important role in cycling plant nutrients (N, P, C, S) Cattle production depends on rumen microorganisms Biotechnology Food production (Dairy products (ogurt, cheese) sauerkraut, pickles, sausage, bread, beer, wine etc. Bioremediation (detoxification by use of microorganisms Genetic Engineering (manipulation of genes in order to create new products) * Who started Microbiology? Antoine van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch merchant The first person to see microbes as being ALIVE! Father of bacteriology * * What Leeuwenhoek could see? Different shapes of bacteria Red blood cells, spermatozoa, plant and animal cells Magnification of his micro scope was 32X Robert Hooke’s Microscope Compared to Leeuwenhoek’s Robert Hook introduced the compound microscope (objective lens + ocular lens) Robert Hook (1665) reported that the smallest biological structural unites were â€Å"little boxes†-cells CELL THEORY- all living things are composed of cells Golden Age of Microbiology (1830-1900) Scientists searched for answers to the following questions: Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible? What causes fermentation? What causes disease? How can we prevent infection and disease? Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible? Aristotle proposed spontaneous generation-living things can arise from non-living matter Toads and snakes could be born of moist soles Maggots could arise from corpses Francesco Redi’s Experiment, 1670s Flies with meat 1765 Lazzaro Sallanzani conducted experients to disprove the doctrine of spontaneous generation biolied infusion, hermetically sealed the container. We will write a custom essay sample on Microbiology Notes or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Nly a small crack in the neck was sufficient to allow penetration and development of â€Å"animalcules† in the infusion. Nicholas Appert patented his invention and established a business to preserve a variety of food in sealed bottles-canning Finally! Arguments about spontaneous generation resolved by Louis Pasteur Read about Louis Pasteur’s experiment How he really did it? Pasteur’s S-shaped flask kept microbes, but let in (Swan Neck Flask) Joseph Meister First person to be treated by Louis Pasteur against rabies Pasteur’s Discoveries Performed the most convincing experiment disproving the theory of spontaneous generation Role of yeast in alcohol fermentation Devised the process of pasteurization and basis of aseptic techniques Disease of vine-cold be prevented by heating the wine for a short time to a temp of 55-60 degrees Celsius The first preventive treatment for rabies What causes disease? Pasteur developed germ theory of disease, but had no proof†¦began working on Anthrax, but could not get a cure Robert Koch Studied causative agents of disease Gave the first proof that bacteria causes disease (by isolating the anthrax bacillus in pure culture)-germ theory of disease Perfected the technique of isolating bacteria in pure culture-solid media-boiled potato Discovered Mycobacterium tuberculosis-the organism causing the tuberculosis. Tuberculin-substance used for diagnosis of tuberculosis Excreted into liquid culture and if there is an allergic reaction than the person has tuberculosis Introduced the staining procedure for M. tuberculosis (acid fast staining) First to stain bacterial smears Discovered the causative agent of cholera 1905 received the Nobel Prize for Medicine Koch’s postulates Identify criteria for proving that a specific type of a microorganism causes a specific disease: 1. The microorganism should be constantly present in a diseased animal 2. The microorganism must be cultivated in pure culture 3. When inoculated into a healthy animal, such microorganism should cause characteristic disease symptoms 4. The microorganism should be re-isolated from the experimental animal, and it should have the same characteristics as the original microorganisms Ignaz Semmelweis e implemented that if doctors wash their hands they would reduce spreading germs Joseph Lister (1827-1912) Father of modern surgery Became aware of Louis Pasteur’s work (rotting and fermentation) Applied antiseptic (carbolic acid) treatment for prevention and care of would infection Introduced the procedure of disinfection of operating rooms Edward Jenner Performed the first vaccinat ion against small pox Chemotherapy (treatment of disease by using chemical substances) the first antibiotic was discovered by accident was penicillin Alexander Fleming-1928 discovered penicillin Produced by mold: Penicillin Crysogenum Commercial production started in 1945 in the US Problems with Antibiotics Can be toxic to humans Spread of new varieties of resistant microorganisms Development of techniques that facilitated further progress of microbiology Pure cultures (clone) is a culture consisting of only one type of microorganisms Use of Petri dishes Aseptic techniques Bacteria as distinct species Development of microbiology in the 20th century Bacteriology study of bacteria. Mycology study of fungi. Fungal infections rising Parasitology study of protozoa and parasitic worms Immunology study of immunity. Virology study of viruses. Cannot be seen by a microscope, you need an electro microscope (Dimitri Iwanowski, reported on the presence of infectious agents much smaller than bacteria. He discovered the tobacco mosaic virus) Recombinant DNA technology fragments of foreign DNA can be incorporated into bacterial genome The Establishment of the Scientific Method Scientific method-based on an experimental system It includes: 1. Observation and description a phenomenon 2. Formulate a hypothesis to explain the phenomena 3. Performance of experimental tests (to confirm hypothesis) If supported hypothesis becomes theory Joseph Lister He was born in 1827 in Upton, England Attended London and Edinburgh Universites Joseph Lister was educated in Edinburgh. Edinburgh is located in Scotland Scotland is an independent state Scotland is part of Great Britain Scotland is a province in France Scotland is part of Canada Why Chemistry? Bacteria subcellular structures complex molecules simple molecules atoms Atoms Building blocks of molecules Subatomic particles Shell Electrons rotate about the nucleus in their orbitals Nucleus Protons Neutrons Atoms do not carry charge Electron Orbitals and Shells Electrons rotate around the nucleus in orbitals (pathways) Low level energy electrons Nearest to the nucleus 1st shell-1 orbits (2e) 2nd shell- 4 orbitals (up to 8 e) 3rd shell-9 orbitals (up to 18e) Elements Each element contains characteristic number of protons and electrons-position in the table There are 118 known elements Elements in groups of similar properties Biologically important atoms 11 elements are of biological importance The Fathers of the Periodic Talbe Dmitri Mendeleev Lothar Meyer Isotopes Have a different number of neutrons; same physical properties Some isotopes have unstable nuclei-emit energy-radioactivity Significance in Biology Tracing atoms and molecules in metabolic reactions Diagnostic purposes Sterilization (gamma irradiation) Video Notes: Charges of protons and electrons are equal in magnitude Isotopes are identical to each other but sometimes vary in properties Carbon 12 and 13 are stable Carbon 11, 14, 15 are not Radiactivity Henri Becquerel-mysterious rays * Molecules Two or more atoms combined form a molecule-a new compound has new characteristics Compounds are formed when atoms are, donate or lose electrons Number of electron in outer shell-valence Determines the readiness of an element to react with other element How the atoms bind together? Through the chemical bonds Covalent bonds Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds Covalent Bonds Bonds between atoms that share electrons Electrons are not shared equally- change of polarity Hydrogen molecule H2 Water molecule is polar Ionic Bonds Electrons are transferred from one atoms to another When valences complement each other Ex- NaCl (table salt) 7 is not stable Ionization Dissociation of molecules (atoms) into charge particles: Cations (+) Anions (-) When added to water, crystals of NaCl get ionized-Na+ Cl- Electrolytes-conduct electricity: acids, bases, salts When two electrodes are put together Each ion becomes hydrated-surrounded by water molecules Hydrophilic molecules attracts water Hydrophobic molecules repel water (benzene- a non-polar molecule) Hydrogen Bonds Attractive forces between nearby molecules Ex. Water molecules; proteins and DNA Represented with dotted line Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Oxidation-losing electron Reduction-receiving electrons Chemical formulas Atomic symbols and number of atoms in a molecule: H2O Do not provide information on position of bonds between atoms C6H12O6 glucose and fructose Reactions Synthesis reaction Equation must be balanced Decomposition reactions Larger molecule is broken up in two smaller units 2H2+Ox 2H2O Solutions Mixture of substances solute- (solid, gaseous, liquid) in the solvent (liquid) Water is the most common solvent * * Acidity, Alkalinity, pH * Solutions can be acidic or basic H2H+ + OH- ionization of water H+H+ + OH- access of H+ acidic pH pH=_log [H+] pH1 =0. 1 mole H=/liter ph 2+0. 01 mole H+/liter Inorganic and Organic Compounds Compounds can be: Inorganic ( do not have C and H combined) NaCl, CaCO3†¦ Organic (CH4)-complex compounds with C boned to other atoms The Chemistry of Carbon Carbon is the fundamental element of life- Why? Molecular skeleton Have 4 electrons in outer orbital-can form 4 bonds Most often forms stable bonds with C H O N S and P Functional Groups Carbon binds to other atoms via molecular groups-functional groups Functional groups determin characteristics of a molecules Carbodroxyl-fatty acids, proteins, organic acids Amino- proteins, nucleic acids Macromolecules Smaller molecules (monomers) are assembled into larger compounds-macromolecules (polymers) **Table 2. 3 and Table 2. 4 ** Classes of Carbohydrates Monosaccharide Have 3-7 atoms Pentose (5 Carbons) Hexose (6 carbons) Glucose Disaccharides Sucrose Polysaccharides Glycosidic Bonds Bonds between two sugars Carbons from two molecules are bonded via oxygen with release of H2O molecule Function of Polysaccharides Provide structural support (cell wall) Nutrient and energy storage Some examples Cellulose Agar Chitin-present in insects Peptidoglycan-polysaccaharide makes up cell wall of bacteria Glycocalyx- surrounds bacterial cell and provides protection Lipids Not soluble in water Classes of Lipids Triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids Waxes Synthesis of Triglycerides Glycerol bonds with three molecules of fatty acds through ester bonds Dehydration (need more) Biological Significance of Lipids Storage material (triglycerides) Membrane lipids Phospholipids Hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion Cholesterols Provides support to the cell wall of some bacteria Proteins Composed of amino acids Assembled together through peptide bonds Peptide: short chain of amino acids Polypeptide (proteins): long chains of amino acids Protein structure determines its functionality: Primary-long chain of amino acids Secondary Tertiary Quaternary- complex molecule * * Peptide Bonds Bond between amino group of one AA and carboxyl groups of another AA Proteins are made up of 20 AA Look at list the Waterstreet gave us The Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA; informational molecules Contain genetic information Composed of nucleotides Nucleotides composed of: Bases Sugars Phosphate The Double Helix of DNA Held together by nucleotides ATP: the energy molecule of cells Adenosine triphosphate contains Adenine Ribose Three phosphates Gives off energy when the bond is broken and one phosphate group removed Marie Curie Pioneered research on radioactivity Theory of radioactivity Discovered two elements: polonium and radium The first female professor at the University of Paris The first Nobel st Nobel prize- in physics 2nd Noble prize in chemistry Marie Curie was born in France England Poland Austria General Laboratory Techniques-5 I’s Inoculation Incubation Isolation Inspection Identification Inoculation Introducing a sample (the inoculum) into a container with a nutrient medium The medium contains appropriate nutrients that sustains the growth of microorganisms Some micro bes have to be inoculated into a living organism Isolation: Separating one species from another Obtaining pure culture Cultures composed of cells arising from a sing cell-PURE CULTURES Obtaining Pure Culture Streak plate method Petri plate Material picked up from somewhere and put at the tip of inoculation needle Dilution method Transfers to build bacteria in the petri plates Types of Media Physical State Liquid Solid (agar) Chemical composition Synthetic Nonsynthetic (complex) Functional type General purpose Enrichment Selective Differential Measures to be taken when working with microbiological media Needs to be sterilized Prevent contamination Synthetic media Known chemical composition (NaNO3/I; glucose 2g/l) Non-synthetic (complex) media Contains chemically undefined components (Pepton, beef extract†¦) Enrichment medium- supports the growth of a specific group of microorganisms (Ex. N2-fixing) Selective media-favor specific microorganisms and inhibits the others (methylene blue inhibits the growth of Gram+ bacteria) Differential media-contain substances that permit detection of microorganisms with specific metabolic activity E. coli (red) Incubation Microbiological cultures are placed temperature-controlled chamers-incubators Temperature: 20-40 C Pathogenic: 37 C MICROSCOPE-The Instrument Microscopes are the instruments that magnify the cell (object) to extent at which the cell details become visible Leeuwenhoek’s microscope had one lens Robert Hooke invented the compound microscope Microscope- The Basic Principle The specimen is magnified with the objective lens (real image) This image is magnified by ocular lens (virtual image) An enlarged and inverted image is received by retina Basic features of microscopy Magnification Resolution Contrast Magnification Magnification is the result of light refraction Mag=Objective powerx Ocular lens power Ex: Objective lens: low power lens=10x Ocular lens power=10x Mag=10x 10=100x * * Your objective lenses are color coded 4x- red 10c-yrlloe 40x-blue 100-black Use of immersion oil with high power objectives Immersion oil has the same refractive index as the glass Between glass cover slip and slide Used only with 100x lens magnification Refractive index is a measure of relative velocity at which light passes through material Resolution Resolution (resolving power) is the ability of a lens to distinguish two adjacent points as two separate objects. In light microscopes resolution is 0. 2 micrometers (limit 2,000x) High resolution-further apart Low resolution-closer together Which images can be resolved? Lower than 0. 2 micrometers Bigger than 0. 2 micrometers can be seen with microscope How does the resolution depend on the wavelength? Resolving distance=wavelength of light/w xNA (numerical aperture) The shorter the wavelength- the greater resolution Contrast Specimen must contrast with their background This can be achieved by: Changing the refractive index of specimen Stain the specimen Refractive index- mesures of light bending ability * * Types of Microscopes * What is the illuminating sources? * Light Bright field Phase contrast Fluorescent Dark filed Differential interference Confocal * Electron beam transmission scanning Light Microscopy-Compound Microscope Optical microscope parts: Illuminator Condenser Objective lens Ocular lens (eyepiece) Dark-Field Microscopes Best for observing pale objects Only those light rays scattered by specimen enter objective lens Specimen appears light against dark background Increases contrast and enables observation of more details Bright filed vs. Dark field Microscopy When light reaches the ocular lens dark objects are seen easier Fluorescent Microscopy Fluorescence is the ability of certain substancces to absorb short wavelengths of light and emit light at a longer wavelength Fluorescence Microscopy Sputum mucus Same mucus showing Mycobacterium tuberculosis stained with a fluorescent dye Immunofluorescence Diagnostic procedure: Antibody produced against a specific bacterium Conjugate antibody and fluorochrome Treat the unknown bacterium If suspected bacteria are indeed present they will bind the tagged antibodies Ultraviolet (or near) light is used as a light source Phase Microscopes Provides better contras and more details in the cell The light rays that hit he specimen travel a different path than the rays, which do not hit the specimen Bright field looks very light Phase looks better Differential Interference Microscopy (Nomarsky) Uses two beams of light Higher resolution -D images Confocal Microscopy Uses fluorescent dyes and UV lasers to illuminate the sample An image is taken in a single plane that is not thicker than 1. 0micrometer Resolution is increased by up to 40% because emitted light passes through pinhole aperture Computer constructed 3-D images Bacillus cereus Live cells-red Dead cells-green Composite image of 10 images Each 0. 2 micrometers thickness HIV (in green) travels down the microtubules (in red) Toward the nucleus (Blue) Bacteria are seen in light microscopes Electron Microscopy Two types of electron microscopes: Transmission (TEM) Scanning (SEM) Source of illumination electron beam Advantage of using EM Resolving distance=wavelength of lig/2 Wavelength of visible light=400A Resolution (light microscopy): 2000 A (0. 2 micrometers) EM uses an electron beam as a source of illumination (1000,000 times shorter wavelength than visible light) Resolution (EM): 2 A Magnification up to 100,000 Transmission electron microscope (TEM) Image formed by the elctrons transmitted through a specimen A specimen is a thin section of material (fixed, embedded, and sliced-never alive) TEM is used for objects smaller than 0. 2 mm * The first electron microscope Constructed by Ernst Ruska in 1931 He demonstrated that a magnetic coil could act as an electron lens In 1986, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his many achievements in electron optics Ruska was born in Heidelberg Heidelberg is city in France Heidelberg University is one of the oldest Universities in Europe Heidelberg is a city in Germany B and C are the correct answers Scanning electron microscope Used to study the surface of the cell/tissue Image formed by the electrons reflected from the surface 3D view image is obtained on TV screen Preparation of specimen for optical microscopes

The significance of Martin Luther and the protestant reformation in history of western civilization

The significance of Martin Luther and the protestant reformation in history of western civilization Introduction Martin Luther is one of the greatest men known in history for the many developments he made. Among these developments is the protestant reformation (Bainton 44). In this reformation, Martin Luther strongly opposed the notion that people could free themselves from sin by exchanging God’s punishment with money.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The significance of Martin Luther and the protestant reformation in history of western civilization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In his attempts to reform the protestant church, Luther wrote several letters to the leaders of the church such as Bishops and the clergy. Nevertheless, after the struggle that proved difficult at times, Martin Luther succeeded in the protestant reformation. This paper therefore seeks to explore the major significance of Martin Luther and the protestant reformation in the history of western civilization. This will be effectively a chieved by addressing the questions that follow. What was the basic chronology of Luther’s breaking with the roman church? Martin Luther protested on October 31, 1517, reacting to several debates, which he thought were of great significance (Mackinnon 204). He thus sparked a lot of debate from different interest groups and people, particularly with respect to the so-called doctrines. Although his reaction or revolt was not against the church itself, it can clearly be depicted that it was mainly geared towards the general reform in the Church. Nevertheless, by 1519 he openly reacted to those doctrines he had earlier on regarded as implicit and even denied the mandate of the church in certain religious issues. In 1520, the pope excommunicated him at the time. He defied these religious leaders and particularly rallied against the papacy and the Eucharist. Why did he do so and what societal factors facilitated the acceptance of his message? From the proceedings of the events, it is depicted that the significant social factors, which facilitated the acceptance of Martin Luther’s ideas were mainly two-fold. The first one is that there were already some elements of dissatisfaction or resentments coming mainly from the city governments regarding the various clerical privileges and immunities given. They, for instance, were exempted from tax and even undertaking some civil responsibilities. An example of the latter is their exemption from defending the city despite the fact that religious orders held a big proportion of urban property. These people were therefore keen to eliminate the aforementioned privileges and take the general civil responsibility like everybody else. In addition, they were also reacting to the poor quality of sermon at the time. Consequently, they established preacherships where men with some good level of education were considered, and where such men were given the mandate of delivering or reading the sermons. This really attracted the protestant style of worship that emphasized more on sermons, and formed the main part of the service as opposed to Catholic orientation of Eucharist.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More What were the key principles of his critique of Catholicism and what were the principle writings by which he spread his message? His major critique was directed at the Papacy. According to Luther, the whole idea of Papacy was just but a beautiful false front, and a misleadingly holiness under which most of the evil was hidden. He therefore called for an urgent reform in the Church. Luther advocated that the papacy be converted to simplicity as well as humble fashion of the former days of St. Peter, and called for reconsideration in the way the finance was managed. He actually demanded that all finances and estate property be taken care of by the national churches instead of the pope. He also de manded for the complete eradication of clerical celibacy, which the Germans had rejected earlier on. With respect to the Eucharist, Martin Luther was particularly concerned about the nature of the sacramental doctrine in the Church. He particularly objected the idea of the many sacraments, which the church adopted at the time. The Church acknowledged seven sacraments while Luther advocated for those that were mainly comprised of baptism and the Lords Supper under the Authority of Jesus Christ. According to Luther, the catholic Mass was not a true reflection of the Lord’s Supper. Further, he argued that the whole idea of Eurcharist was not a repetition of the sacrifice of Christ. He believed that wine and bread should only be given to the laity and the clergy. Again, the view commonly held by the Church doctrine, was that during celebration of the Eucharist, bread and wine are changed to the body and blood of Christ respectively, and that only the physical appearances of the b read and wine remained (Mackinnon 204). According to Luther, this was based on the principal of Aristotle, with whom he actually differed. He suggested for a more real doctrine that of the actual presence that followed the consecration of the body and blood of Christ in their corresponding form of the bread and wine. He argued that the priest never caused any miracle, but instead Jesus Christ was omnipresent and that he opens the eyes of every believer to ChristAdvertising We will write a custom essay sample on The significance of Martin Luther and the protestant reformation in history of western civilization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In respect to the Christian Freedom, he advocated for freedom from all priest crafts, with the priest being the only one responsible for carrying out what he had been called upon to perform in a specific office. Luther mainly employed the use of Hymns, Psalmist and his catechism to propagate his teachings or ideas. These writings entailed mainly basic religious knowledge. A case in print is Hymn‘s Almighty Fortress is our God which was generally easy to remember and evoked strong human feelings. This was particularly important, as it was able to have a significant imprint of Martin Luther’s central or key points in his doctrines. His catechism contained brief sermons on the main articles of faith and presented succinct explanation of doctrines in form of questions and answers. What is the most effective means used by the Roman Catholic Church to the protestant challenge and why. From my own point of view, I could say that one of the most effective and appropriate means the Catholic Church used in reaction to the various challenges was the Protestant formation of ecumenical council. This is because it significantly helped in fostering unity and accommodation from the opposing religions. That way, the two religions were no longer in conflict, but united in most o f their doctrines and culture. The legacy of the reformation and Counter Reformation The main legacy out of all these is linked to a series of religious wars that eventually resulted in a long civil strife, which had a negative impact on the German economy thus leading to the death of several Germans (Bainton 45). As a result, this meant that the religious believes in Europe had been outweighed by the political and national convictions. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995. Print. Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. New York: Russell Russell, 1962. Print.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Maths coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Maths coursework - Essay Example Although the function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", slightly differ from the given values of the graph (between hour 4-7). However, for the all other points, the graph follows the same path as the one given. So we can say that the function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", is suitable to model the data of the graph. Figure 3 represents the amount of the drug in the bloodstream over a 24-hour period. In the below graph (figure 3) assumption is made that after every six hour 10 Â µg of drug is given to patient and it adds in the drug remained in the bloodstream ( value of constant a in function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", will change after every six hours). Therefore, the function will change after every six hours as the remaining drug adds into the given drug every six hours. Initially the drug given was 10 Â µg. After six hour, it remains to 3.5 Â µg. Now when 10 Â µg is again give to patient then it will become 13.5 Â µg. Moreover, this pattern will be continues for every six hours. Since we wanted to plot for 24-hour period, so for the second, third and fourth period the function will be " y=13.5e^ (-0.175(t-6)) ", " y=14.7e^ (-0.175(t-12)) "and" y=15.1e^ (-0.175(t-18)) " respectively. The value of t is changed here, so that the graph plotted continuous from the last point, other wise it will start from the starting point. From the figure 5, it can be seen that, when after initially 10Â µg of drug is given to the patient and thereafter no drug is given to the patients then the function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)" is when plotted for week period, the value of y approaches to 0 (actual value will be 0.0524 Â µg) after 30 hours. However, it will never become zero. Figure 6 represents the amount of the drug in the bloodstream over a 24-hour period. In the above graph assumption is made that after every six hour 10 Â µg of drug is given to patient and it adds in the drug remained in the bloodstream ( value of constant a in function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", will change after

No title page not yet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

No title page not yet - Essay Example Some shows can make people smarter because of their sophisticated plots and moral dilemmas. Like Johnson, I appreciate the fast-paced plots and realistic characters of 24. I know that Jack Bauer makes hard decisions, as he uses violence and deception to accomplish his goal of saving thousands of civilians. These kinds of TV shows compel people to think about multilayered meanings of intentions and interests that are present in everyday realities, and which can be more complex as people go up the levels of social and political institutions. Instead of predicting shows because of their repetitive formula plots, people cannot always determine what will happen next and they are strained to think more, so that they can understand the plot and characters. On the contrary, I do not agree that all TV shows follow the Sleeper Curve, if the audiences do not have critical and inference skills to start with. I do not believe that parents should allow children to watch shows that have high content of sex and violence. They do not have enough critical thinking skills to know what is right or wrong, and what is real and made-up. It is like a neighbor who likes 24 for its action content, but is not interested in making inferences about the plot and the people. Instead, I hear him saying that Muslims are mainly terrorists and that many immigrants are criminals. He does not have the skills to attain the Sleeper Curve as Johnson describes it. Instead of thinking better, he feeds on the stereotypes that the show presents. The Sleeper Curve is not true for all. It only applies to people who have critical thinking and logic skills. Present-day TV shows might be smarter, but unless people have developed their cognitive skills, they are not better off watching them. Sometimes, they are even worse off, if they use it to reinforce their prejudice

Operation management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Operation management - Essay Example We also can customize the wrapping papers and cards with names or a special message etc. Financing will directly come from the financial resources of Mouza. II. Executive Summary The Bows and Ribbons is a unique business that offers services to clients that do not have time or the skills to wrap their own gifts. The uniqueness of the business will gather enough interest to produce a mass base clientele that would be enough to create a fad. Straight forward direct network marketing will be used to ensure that the knowledge about Bows and Ribbons are heard by successful women in the country. Prudent innovations and a good portfolio of designs shall be compiled to ensure that references are available for the women who do not have enough time to think of gifts much more its wrapping and bows. III. Industry Outlook, Forecast & Trends Somebody is being born everyday thus the number of potential clients are the relatives and acquaintances of the people who have a birthday for a particular d ay. Women in urban centers, most especially men in the metropolitan area normally career women who may not have the time to shop much more to wrap their own gifts. ... Competitive Advantage Our service has many advantages in compare to our competitors. The first advantage is that it’s a mobile gift-wrapping store which makes our consumer save time, the store comes to their house instead of them going to the store. The second advantage is that we have compatible prices although it’s a home service. We provide the best quality with very reasonable prices. The third advantage is that we offer latest designs of gift-wrapping material that are not found anywhere else in the Emirates because it’s imported from outside the UAE. The last advantage is that we can customize the gifts. The clients can have any name printed on the wrapping paper or on the cards. IV. Description of Value The innovative component of our service, is that we are the first mobile gift store in the UAE. We give our customers the opportunity of staying at home and having the best wrapping service at the same time. The second innovative component is that we have a small printer that can customize cards, ribbons and wrapping paper we also can engrave names on boxes. In addition, the materials we use have a high quality and have the latest designs and we constantly offer new trends of wrapping. We can do flower arrangements as well, which makes us two-in-one, a mobile gift-wrapping store and a mobile flower shop. V. Operational Plan Bows and Ribbon will maintain two vans that will be deployed to client sites. Calls or even facebook messages will be entertained to send the vans. Payments will also be collected by the driver of the vans including the person who specialize in gift wrapping. VI. Marketing Plan The strategy is to make the most number of women aware of our services and the quality of our services.

The Relationship Between Geography And International Relations Politics Essay

The Relationship Between Geography And International Relations Politics Essay From this quote, it can be understood the importance of geography for regions, people, politics, economics, globalization and the study of International Relations. As a definition, it can be remarked that Geography is considered as the study of spatial patterns in the human and physical worlds. What geographers do is the examination of how human and natural characteristics are distributed across the earth, what the relationship between them is and what patterns of behavior have those interactions. As an example, it can be used in terms of nature the Hurricane Katrina, when most of the population of New Orleans started to live in other cities in United States, while the price of gasoline increased considerably. Another example would be the war in Iraq, where so many Iraqi people have dead, and much of the military force is formed by people from many places in the world. In that sense, geography points on the study of interactions and flows between places in the world, not only physically but also Human, Systematic or Thematic and Regional geographic studies are made too. Those ramifications of Geography are called as Approaches to Geography  [2]  . Starting with Physical Geography, it can be said that it is the study of the natural environment and its processes in Earths surface: how climate changes, the distribution of landscape, the behavior and location of resources, hydrographic sources, ecology, soil surfaces for development, construction or life, and interactions between them that give people the idea of how is their intervention affecting the environment where they live in. On the other hand, Human Geography studies the human relations according to their location, the way societies are when living in a specific place of the world. Due to the fact that human beings form large societies, they create physical and social environments where they transform their social structures and surrounding area where they live. These actions go towards the need of survival, and interests that people have in order to achieve general and specific goals. As branches of Human Geography, it can be mentioned Demography  [3]  , urban/rural changes, politics and economies. Talking about Systematic or Thematic Geography, it can be stated as the study of the spatial relations and its effects relating it to Human Geography. That means the interactions of human groups with climate change, industrial development, health, migrations and urban growth. Finally, Regional Geography concentrates on specific areas on Earths surface  [4]  . It includes the study of soils, vegetation, landscapes and the linkage with culture, population, economy, politics, being both physical and human characteristics shapers of a Regional Character  [5]  . This concept involves the meaning of time, because regional linkages and boundaries change constantly from the point of view of geographers and also human collectivities. In this way, Regional Geography allows to establish a two-way interaction  [6]  between region and people which is really important to understand the relationship between geography and many aspects in the international environment. One of these aspects is globalization. As it is well known, globalization is transforming the world, making cultures get mixed and spread all over it. According to John J. Wild and his colleagues  [7]  , globalization changes also the national economies and standards of living (for better or for worse). The forces that drive globalization nowadays are changing profoundly cultures and political, legal, social and economic systems. Global connections involve crossing barriers or frontiers with ideas, technology, culture, people, money, capital, and unfortunately crime and terrorism. Definitely, it is much more than the expansion of trade and investment among nations  [8]  . This definition takes people to have many debates against and supporting globalization, in terms of its influence on jobs and wages, labor and environmental regulation income inequality, national sovereignty, democracy and culture. Now that globalization has been explained, Localization is also a very important concept to remark, and the best way to do it is with an example: it is not the same case if it is examined the way of living in France, and contrasted it with the conditions of living in Malaysia, Singapore or Peru. Ways of thinking and acting in those regions are so different, even if people have similar characteristics as human beings. That is why people in different areas have their local identities clearly defined, and the new ones that arrive are considered as external, though they start later to become so popular and widely accepted. That is what is considered the Power of globalization. Another aspect that involves geography and the international environment is the human impact on natural scenarios. It refers to the impact of the human activities (industrial, scientific, demographic) in the landscape, and environment conditions that make possible life on Earth. Towards this topic are well known the efforts that governments and non governmental institutions have done in order to preserve the environment. Almost all people around the world have heard about the Kyoto Protocol in the United Nations Convention on Climate Change, and other conferences and meetings all over the world, to prevent or diminish the emissions and risks of contamination for life and human development. Regarding at this topic, it can be stood out this expression said in An inconvenient truth, the film made with the participation of Al Gore, that tries to move consciences towards global warming nowadays: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Each one of us causes Global Warming, but we can change it with the products we buy, the electricity we use, our cars. We have the solution in our hands. We need determination to make them workà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦  ¿But, there is actually a real conscience of the damage human beings have done to the Earth, or it is only a political strategy to obtain greater benefits? Now is time to speak about International Relations. As is well known, International Relations is the study of human interactions through national borders and factors that affect those interactions  [9]  . Thereby, Geography can be defined in terms of International Relations as the study of the geographical characteristics that affect directly or obliquely the international actors, such as states, civil society, NGOs and intergovernmental organizations. It has to be taken into account that the aspects mentioned before are part of International Relations as a hole, but it was absolutely necessary to define each one of them to have a clearer idea of what they are. Now, inside International Relations there are aspects as globalization, environmental issues, but also there are other ones like: regions and cultural geography, society, race, gender and ethnicity, population distribution and dynamics, politics, development and human rights. Continuing with the environmental issues, there are four important problems in the environment that concern people in the world. The first one is the impact of farming and mining. These activities have in the recent years increased soil erosion, and contamination due to the toxic wastes sluiced to land, going together with changes in species, both fauna and flora. The second problem is the ozone depletion caused by the toxic gases that people leave to the air, making the ozone hole grow more every single day. The last two ones are acid depositions  [10]  and natural hazards, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, storms, mudslides and problems in coastal zones. In terms of regions and cultural geography it is important to state the influence of language as a way of communication among people, and it is a very important factor in geographic diversity, it builds a shared identity in communities and groups of people, the same way religion and races do. In race and ethnicity, ethnic groups for example establish a common identity, recognized by themselves and by other people outside the ethnic groups according to elements as language, religion, tribe, nationality or race, and the share of a strong link between members  [11]  . Following this sequence of ideas, the next topic in the International Relations and Geography is population distribution and dynamics. How migration, population densities, distribution, poverty and wealthy affect the international environment? Demography, the branch of Human Geography that studies those effects, is in charge of analyze the social, economic, cultural and politic connotations that have this phenomena. They play an important role in the economic and social structure of a country, and also when planning the main policies and practices in the world  [12]  . The big dilemma now is to adjust population dynamics to the existent structures, or on the other hand, modify the structure of the International System to the tendencies of the demographic growth  [13]  . As population increases faster every single day, it is necessary for the International System to take into account demographic variables to create new policies in terms of migration, jobs and wages, security, going towards development strategies, especially in third world countries. This quote said by Sauvy, explains perfectly the relationship between Demography and International Relations: Demography, science that studies population, is everywhere and nowhere. Devoid of natural frontiers, it can be extended or restricted conventionally  [14]  . As Demography studies the effect of populations in International Relations, and it has to be entirely with humans, it does not have natural borders but interferes absolutely in the International System and its way of working. When talking about politics, it is necessary to call the concept of Political Geography, which is the study of the influence of political organizations or movements in the world regional geography. The main objective of Political Geography is the relationship between Population, State and Territory  [15]  . This branch of geography is structured in three levels, as follows: The State where are studied all cohesive, coercive and breakup forces in a specific territory. Over the State, international relations are located, as the study of political and geostrategic processes in the area. Finally, under the State (but not less important) is located the study of the political geography of communities inside the territory, and their relations of power between the communities and the state.  [16]   In the political ambit it is essential to mention also the importance of other organizations such as United Nations in the ways of government in regions. The term governance appears affected by the influence of those organizations as regulators or cooperators in the International System. These organizations also work as network builders that function across country borders, giving birth to a process called the stretching of politics.  [17]   The last one of the aspects related to International Relations and Geography, is Development and Human Rights. It considers the differences that erupt when analyzing some regions that have higher or lower material and personal well-being indexes, and those studies take into account for example the complex interactions of people with natural environment, the historical growth of population, the evolution of political systems, economics and Human Rights  [18]  . From that point, these phenomena can give an idea of how Human Rights in the International system have evolved into the established guidelines of Human Rights today in the world. Concluding, all aspects mentioned before link Geography with IIRR in a way that is impossible to mention IIRR without mentioning Geography, since it talks about aspects that are essential for the understanding of International System. Geography can be considered as a helpful tool since IIRR is a multidisciplinary science.

Mexicos War for Independence :: essays research papers fc

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mexico is the northernmost country of Latin America. It lies just south of the United States. The Rio Grande forms about two-thirds of the boundary between Mexico and the United States. Among all the countries of the Western Hemisphere, only the United States and Brazil have more people than Mexico. Mexico City is the capital and largest city of Mexico. It also is one of the world's largest metropolitan areas in population. Hundreds of years ago, the Indians of Mexico built large cities, developed a calendar, invented a counting system and used a form of writing. The last Indian empire in Mexico, the Aztec, fell to Spanish invaders in 1521. For the next 300 years, Mexico was a Spanish colony. The Spaniards took Mexico's riches, but they also introduced many changes in farming, government, industry and religion. The descendants of the Spaniards became Mexico's ruling class. The Indians remained poor and uneducated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the Spanish colonial period, a third group of people developed in Mexico. These people, who had both Indian and white ancestors, became known as Mestizos. Today, the great majority of Mexicans are Mestizos, and they generally take great pride in their Indian ancestry. A number of government programs stress the Indian role in Mexican culture. In 1949, the government made an Indian the symbol of Mexican nationality. The war for independence is sometimes considered a revolutionary war. It is not, however. The war for independence was fought to end colonial rule. The war was based on politics and a separation of powers. In this essay I will start from the rising discontentment amongst the indigenous population and how the higher ranking classes exploited their failures for their own societal class gain in a system where they have always been favored more by societal leaders. Once New Spain settled in its new territory, inner cores were created as part of the system. New Spain, from now on, would be under direction of the mother country Spain. Its colonial system would be entrenched in the new colony and therefore, its economy would strive to gain profit and make Spain richer and stronger. The economy was based on agriculture, ranching, mining, industry, and commerce. The majority of labor that would go into doing these jobs would be from the indigenous people, or â€Å"Indians†. Although some â€Å"Indians† were paid decent wages, most were treated unfairly or poorly. They worked long, hard hours.

The Boy in Striped Pyjamas

The story is mostly told from the viewpoint of a child, eight year old Bruno. His father is an SS Officer and the family move from Berlin into a house near the grounds of a concentration camp. Bruno thinks that the fence exists so that animals cannot escape. Schmuel laughs, but not unkindly and he informs Bruno that the purpose of the fence is to restrain the Jewish prisoners. The sadistic SS lieutenant beats to death the Jewish house servant, and following this Bruno discovers Schmuel working in his home.He gives him cake to eat, and at this point the lieutenant enters and notices the crumbs around Schmuel’s face. He accuses Schmuel of stealing food, and Schmuel denies it. He explains that he and Bruno are friends, and that this is why Bruno gave him the cake. Bruno is frightened of the lieutenant, and without regard for the consequences to his friend, he fears for himself and denies all knowledge of knowing Schmuel and says that he did not give him the cake. As children do, Bruno misunderstands the word and hears his new home referred to as â€Å"out with. This implies that the story is based on Auschwitz Shortly after their arrival, Bruno’s sister, twelve year old Gretel becomes increasingly more orientated towards the Nazi doctrine due to her attraction to the SS Lieutenant Kurt Kotler, her father’s underling. He subtly encourages Gretel’s feelings towards him, and it soon becomes clear that the SS Lieutenant is a particularly cruel psychopath. Bruno’s mother Elsa does not share the Nazi beliefs of her husband and daughter; however she is extremely afraid to voice her concerns. Bruno is too young to understand what is happening around him.He asks his father why he sees people wearing striped pyjamas. His father tells him that they are not people, and that they are only Jews. Although he is told not the leave the boundaries of the house, Bruno, like most young boys, becomes bored and decides to explore. He finds himself at the perimeter fence of the concentration camp and it is here that he meets Schmuel. Schmuel is a Polish Jew; he is the same age as Bruno and is a prisoner within the concentration camp. Bruno finds him sitting behind the fence wearing his striped pyjamas, and it is here that they strike a friendship.Along with his father, Schmuel has been captured and taken away from his mother and siblings. The enormity of his suffering is apparent in his appearance, it is visible in his eyes, his body language, and he is extremely thin. When Bruno gives food to Schmuel, the extent of his starvation is obvious in the ravenous way that he eats. The two boys have polar opposite experiences of the war. Bruno is completely naive and Schmuel is experiencing the agonising consequences. It appears that the concentration camp has turned a young boy into an adult. Schmuel is never irritated by Bruno’s naivety he simply responds with patience.It is clear that Schmuel is particularly sharp; he catches on quickly and almost instinctively seems to know what he can expect from Bruno. Schmuel appears to have accepted his way of life. A few days later Bruno visits Schmuel at the camp fence and finds him covered in bruises. It is clear by the condition of his face that he has received a particularly severe beating. As is his nature, Schmuel does not blame Bruno, and their friendship is untarnished. This is the beauty of Schmuel, many people, children and adults, would turn bitter at this experience and develop a real hatred for the Germans.Schmuel understands completely that the fault is not with Bruno. He does not resent the fact that Bruno is not in danger, or that he lives a comfortable life with his Nazi family. Schmuel is a truly good natured, forgiving and incredibly wise little boy. Schmuel tells Bruno that his father has disappeared, and that he cannot find him within the concentration camp. Neither boy has any notion that he has probably been gassed, and Bruno agrees to enter the camp and help Schmuel to look for him. It is here that the most harrowing scene of the book takes place.

Summary of Homers Iliad Book XXIII

Summary of Homer's Iliad Book XXIII Achilles orders the Myrmidons to drive their chariots in battle formation, and they go three times around the body of Patroclus. Then they have a funeral feast. When Achilles falls asleep, the ghost of Patroclus tells him to hurry up and bury him, but also to make sure their bones are interred in the same urn. The next morning Agamemnon orders the troops to get timber. The Myrmidons cover Patroclus with locks of hair. Achilles cuts one long lock he had been growing for a river god back home, but since he will be dying soon, he cuts it for Patroclus, instead, and places it in his hands. After the men have brought the lumber, they go off to prepare a meal while the chief mourners deal with the pyre cutting piece on fat from sacrificed animals to cover the body. Various animals, including two of Patroclus dogs, and stallions, honey, oil, and the 12 young Trojans are killed and added to the pile. Achilles has to plead with the gods for adequate wind for the pyre, but he gets it and the fire doesnt die down until morning. They douse the fire with wine and then Achilles picks out Patroclus bones and puts them in a golden urn, with a protective layer of fat. Achilles faces the army in a circle and says its time for funeral games. The first game has the most elaborate prizes and is for chariot racing. Achilles says he will not compete because his horses are immortal, and so the competition would not be fair. The contenders are Eumelus, Diomedes, Menelaus, Antilochus, and Meriones. The other men make bets. Diomedes wins, but there is debate over second place because Antilochus fouled Menelaus. The next event is boxing. Epeus and Euryalus fight, with Epeus winning. Wrestling is the third event. Fairly typical, the prizes are a tripod worth 12 oxen for first prize, and a woman worth 4 oxen for the loser. Telamons son Ajax and Odysseus fight, but the result is a stalemate and Achilles tells them to share. The next event is a footrace. Oileus son Ajax, Odysseus, and Antilochus contend. Odysseus is behind, but a quick prayer to Athena brings him to first place, with Antilochus in third. The next contest is for the armor Patroclus had taken from Sarpedon. The fighters are to be in full battle gear and first wound wins. Telamons son Ajax fights with Diomedes. Again, there is a draw, although Achilles gives Diomedes the long sword. The next contest is to see who can throw a lump of pig iron the farthest. The prize is enough iron to last a long time making weapons and chariot wheels. Polypoetes, Leonteus, Telamons son Ajax, and Epeus throw it. Polypoetes wins. Iron is also the prize for an archery contest. Teucer and Meriones compete. Teucer forgets to invoke Apollo, so he misses. Meriones makes appropriate promises and wins. Achilles then sets up more prizes for spear throwing. Agamemnon and Meriones stand, but Achilles tells Agamemnon to sit down because there would be no contest since no one is better than he is. He can just take the first prize. Agamemnon gives the prize to his herald. Major Characters in Book XXIII Achilles: Best warrior and most heroic of the Greeks. After Agamemnon stole his war prize, Briseis, Achilles sat out the war until his beloved comrade Patroclus was killed. Although he knows his death is imminent, Achilles is determined to kill as many Trojans as possible, including Hector whom he blames for Patroclus death.Myrmidons: Achilles troops. Their name means ants and they were called Myrmidons because it is said that they were originally ants.Ajax: The son of Telamon and Periboea, this Ajax is the one most people refer to when talking about Ajax. He was one of the foremost fighters in the Trojan War.Ajax: Of Locris, son of Oileus. Bound by the Oath of Tyndareus and one of the Argonauts, he was in the belly of the Trojan Horse.Antilochus: A son of Nestor.Epeus: A son of Panopeus. A champion boxer.Euryalus: A son of King Mecisteus. Under Diomedes and Sthenelus.Odysseus: From Ithaca. One of the leaders of the Greeks who will vie with Ajax for the status of most worthy after Ac hilles. Patroclus: Loyal friend and companion of Achilles in the Trojan War. The son of Menoetius.Menelaus: Helens Greek husband. Menelaus is not considered a good fighter.Meriones: Son of Molus, a Cretan and the charioteer of Idomeneus.Teucer: A half-brother of Ajax and a son of Telamon.Polypoetes: Son of Pirithous. Co-commands the Lapiths.Sarpedon: King of Lycia, son of Zeus.Agamemnon: Lead king of the Greek forces, the brother of Menelaus.

Regulation in the Financial Crisis 2008

Regulation in the Financial Crisis 2008 Introduction The US led global financial crisis that struck in 2007 and persisted through 08 and 09 adversely affected the stability of the global economy. The impact of the crisis escalated far beyond its point of origin (US) and affected the countries around the world while spilling over from the financial system into the real economy.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Regulation in the Financial Crisis 2008 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The implications of the crisis were wide ranging and still difficult to conceptualize. This has led to extensive analysis of the financial crisis by policy makers and financial analyst in a bid to develop and formulate measures that would avert future crises and stabilize the global economy. While numerous claims have been put forth to explain the causes of the 2007-2009 financial crisis, there is almost a universal agreement that the major causes of the financial crisis was the c ombination of a credit boom and a housing bubble that took place in the United States. The post 2007 crisis consequently features the establishment of numerous regulatory initiatives offering diagnoses and presenting recommendations for financial stabilization. Through literature review, the research paper analyses the varying causes that the crisis has been attributed to, the policies which various major governments sought to implement in response to the crisis, the effectiveness and failures of such policies. The research paper further proposes the alternative areas of focus that may serve to avert future crisis in order to achieve consistent financial stability. Reasons for the 2007-09 global financial crises The decline in the US housing market resulting from the failure of sub prime mortgages and mortgage backed securities coupled with an ensuing credit boom marked the beginning of the financial crisis (Canster Cannex 2011). The housing market suffered a major blow as the major ity homeowners defaulted on the (sub prime) loans. As a consequence of borrowers defaulting on loans, the financial institutions faced a major challenge as they repossessed the property at a loss which led to a liquidity crisis in banks and their lending capacity was consequently diminished (Obersteiner 2011). In addition, there was lack of confidence by US investors which led to emergence of a credit crunch. The consumer confidence was limited due to widespread uncertainties in the economy. While the housing bubble and the credit crunch in United States has been widely attributed as the major cause of the 2007 financial crisis, a valid argument still stands that the crisis resulted from poorly regulated lending by financial institutions.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The collapse of major financial institutions led to widespread panic as governments across the g lobe struggled to rescue the major financial institutions in their regions from collapsing. The Australian government launched the stimulus packages which were aimed at rescuing the collapsing economy while the government of United States proposed a $700 billion rescue plan (Obersteiner 2011). This was met with substantial opposition by congressmen who felt that such spending of taxpayers’ money to rescue Wall Street investment bankers was not justified. Metodi Lazarov (2009) argued that if liquidity was the actual cause of the global financial crisis, then providing more liquidity through reduced interest rates that made borrowing easier would have been appropriate in solving the situation. He cites the ignorance of major financial institutions on their own business models of secularization as the major cause of persistent financial crisis. He further attributes the crisis to globalization, financial innovation and asymmetry of information (Lazarov 2009). Lazarov suggests th at the presence of liquidity effects increases the chances of systemic breakdown of any given connectivity between financial institutions which may have caused the crisis. While he agrees that the financial system contained the effects from the housing bubble, he emphasizes on the need for a new and advanced regulatory framework which will shape the financial systems in the future. Fiscal measures are also among the main reasons why investors ran into large risky market such as sub prime which has been cited as a major cause of the 2007 financial crisis. The US government’s move to issue mortgage backed securities coupled with the relative decline in prime mortgage set the stage for the onset of the financial crisis (Lazarov 2009). This saw a significant increase in sub prime mortgage lending which was not in adherence to the government and financial regulations. Further, nationalization of the Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac led to increased investor confidence which led to over reliance of market participants on government guarantees (Lazarov 2009). Responses of Major Economies to the Global Financial Crisis Australia In Australia, the financial crisis struck at a time when the local economy was suffering from massive inflation. In response to these challenges, the Australian government announced its stimulus packages worth $ 10.4b and the government further sought to guarantee the bank deposits (Canster Cannex 2011).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Regulation in the Financial Crisis 2008 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The economic stimulus played a major role in improving the economy which was suffering from recession and incorporated government transfer payment to consumers which in turn increased sales especially over 2008 Christmas period. The government also provided assistance to various sectors in the economy such as the automotive industry since lenders had lost confidence in the market leaving banks as the only credit providers. As the condition of the economy continued to worsen in the beginning of 2009, the government announced a second stimulus package where the government injected $ 47 billion to boost the economy which was then allocated to ailing sectors such as education, housing, infrastructure, small businesses, as well as provision of cash bonuses (Canster Cannex 2011). Consequently, the country suffered less impact of the global financial crisis relative to other major economies of the world. Financial experts argued that the county’s economy was more insulated but evidence of general slowdown in the housing market, and unemployment was still evident in the Australian economy and some questioned the massive government packages claiming that they would haunt the country’s economy in the future as they seek to repay debt. United States In the United States, the financial crisis stimulated substantial debate regarding the governance o f global financial markets with the policy makers calling for the creation of a global financial regulator to monitor both domestic financial markets and ensure that other countries implement adequate prudential regulations (Zimmermann 2010). The 2007 financial crisis which set off as the US housing market collapsed offered no guarantee of US leadership in the creation and modification of suitable global financial standards. In deed, the US regulators faced major challenges in trying to focus on the international economy while its internal economy was falling apart. The early stages of the crises were therefore characterized by deep cuts in the US federal funds interest rates nationalization of Northern Bank UK, introduction of the term auction facility at the Federal Reserve, the take over of a major investment bank, Bear Stearns, among other measures (Obersteiner 2011). However, some of the interventions put forth only served to prolong the crisis rather than providing a solution to the situation. In December of 2007, the US government introduced the term auction facility which made it easier for banks to borrow from federal reserves (Taylor 2008). The measure was aimed at increasing the flow of credit in the money market through the reduction of interest rates. This saw a substantial reduction of spreads in the money market during the initial periods of its implementation but this trend only lasted for a short period of time.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The government’s temporary cash infusions implemented under the stimulus Act of 2008 which aimed at sending financial support amounting to over $ 100 billion to individuals and families in the United States was not successful either. Just like the liquidity facilities, the temporary cash infusions were not focused on dealing with the underlying causes of the financial crisis and since the rebate was financed through borrowing rather than money creation, the policy only served to intensify national debt (Taylor 2008). The failure of this policy was further intensified by consumer’s failure to spend as predicted by the permanent income theory of consumption. Consumer spending remained limited due to widespread uncertainties and the consumption was not jumpstarted according to the policy maker’s expectations which consequently increased income rather than consumption. The initial cuts in interest rates in 2008 which saw the federal funds rate target decrease to 2% presented a major challenge to an economy that was already struggling with a credit crunch. Slight reduction in interest rates would perhaps have been effective in rectifying the situation. However, this was only achievable if the interest rates cuts were much less aggressive. The sharp cuts in the federal funds rates led to the depreciation of the dollar which in turn resulted in plummeting of world oil prices evidenced by the doubling of prices from $ 70 per barrel to $ 140 in a period of one year (Taylor 2008). United Kingdom The United States credit crisis appeared as a foreign concern for United Kingdom in the early 2007 (Tindall 2007). However, in mid 2007, when BNP Paribas announced that it would be unable to withdraw funds from its hedge funds and Northern Rock requested for emergency financial support from the Bank of England, the effect of the financial crisis became a reality in the region. In response to the crisis, the Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Chancellor of the Exch equer Alistair Darling, and the Bank of England governor Mervin King sought to implement policies which were aimed at managing the global financial crisis that had hit the region’s economy. The measures included the nationalization of financial institutions and purchase of risky assets (Tindall 2009). The financial regulators in UK ensured that the value added tax was reduced from 17.5% to 15%, the pension for the aged was raised while the government introduced new tax breaks (Tindall 2009). A total of  £ 300 billion was injected into the economy in an attempt to salvage the situation while the bank interest rates were slashed to a historic 0.5 in March 2009 after the 50 billion pound rescue package failed to take effect in the preceding months (Obersteiner 2011). Effectiveness of International Regulation in Dealing with the Crisis The severity of the global financial crisis revealed major weaknesses in the international architecture for prudential financial regulation that has been constructed since the mid 1970s (Zimmerman 2010). While policy makers responded to the crisis through a flurry of ambitious initiatives to reform international standards and strengthen the international regulatory regimes, the questions remain as to whether the regulation of global finance will safeguard the global economy against such crisis in the future and to what extent the financial regulation system should be changed in response to the crisis. This would only be effective if applied on a global scale since the regulations may impose a greater cost on domestic firms than foreign markets resulting in disequilibrium. It is evident from the severity of the global financial crisis that there are substantial weaknesses in the international financial regulation mechanism. Consequently, the aftermath of the crisis saw the formulation of numerous reports and regulatory initiatives which were published by national regulatory agencies, financial industry associations and inter national standards setting bodies. The financial stability forum further integrated these initiatives into a unified international coordinated response which was released in 2008 and incorporated over sixty recommendations to the crisis. While the policy presented through the financial stability forums were quickly endorsed by the G7 among other major international bodies, the effectiveness of the recommendations in the long run remained in question. Since the international financial regulation has emerged in response to the power and interest of the world’s major economies, most of these policies favoured the sectors where leading states could reap benefits while the areas where they would incur greater costs were narrowed in scope. Consequently, the measures proposed served to benefit the major world economies and continued to economically oppress the developing economies. In the analysis of the 2007 global financial crisis, the lasting power of US and Britain economies glo bal financial regulation should be critically analyzed. This is because the domination of these countries in the global market has adversely affected the global economy due to the fragmented, weak, and exclusive institutional context that has emerged in the recent past. Indeed, David Singer agrees that the central role played by United States in the global economy requires able leadership and ambitious regulatory regimes in absence of which results in increasingly vague principles and guidelines which puts the future of the economy at risk (Zimmermann 2010). Elliot Posner further observed that the European Union was very eager to use their economic influence to export EU models to the international level during the crisis (Zimmermann 2010). The fact that the financial crisis hit at a time when the European Union had increased its capacity to influence international regulatory outcomes due to intensified regional integration and its increasing financial market size further raises a l ot of concerns regarding the effectiveness of these economies in international financial regulation. Governments and policy makers should therefore aim at ensuring the shift of power from major economies by diminishing the role of US and British financial markets and major firms in international regulation and putting less emphasis on their financial power which stems from the reputation of New York and London financial centres (Zimmermann 2010). Although the East Asia and other emerging powers are not ready to take on the leadership role in international regulation politics, their active contribution to international regulation seeks to challenge the status quo and are more critical of the existing international standards in banking regulations which may lead to reforms necessary to ensure future stability of the global economy (Zimmermann 2010). Domestic Policies and the Financial Crisis Past literature has revealed that when the domestic societal actors are engaged in debates abo ut international financial regulation, the scope is often narrow relative to other economic areas such as trade politics (Zimmermann 2010). This is primarily due to the complexity of issues involved, the consequences, and an institutional context that in most advanced countries gives financial analysts and regulators considerable autonomy from domestic interests and legislative assemblies. Societal actors who take active interests in constructive international financial debates are financial market participants who are directly affected by international regulations. These actors are mostly concerned with adjustment costs of new standards and view international regulation coordination as a means to gain access to a greater market share. Consequently, they often oppose intrusive regulatory measures and support market driven solutions which limits the efficiency of measures presented to solve the financial crisis. Domestic politics have indeed played a major role in the financial crisi s with the large scale use of the tax payers’ money to rescue financial institutions being used as a tool for politicizing financial regulations especially in the United States and Britain. Consequently, domestic politics unleashed pressure in favour of stronger regulation policies and increased the involvement of legislative bodies in financial regulation (Zimmermann 2010). Consequently, the severity of the 2007 financial crisis demanded the generation of new kinds of regulations for defensive reasons at a time of weakened political legitimacy and for improvement of industries, confidence restoration, and increasing market share. However, the politicization of financial regulation in Europe had an effect of weakening the association between European Union policy entrepreneurs and multinational financial firms which hindered the effectiveness of such policies in solving the financial crisis. Conclusion and Recommendations The global financial crisis of 2007 adversely affected the global economy leading to a recession. While many causes have been put forth to explain the reasons for its occurrence, the housing bubble and the credit crisis in the US have been cited as the major causes of the crisis. In order to reduce the likelihood of such crisis from occurring in the future, much emphasis has been put on increased international financial regulation. However, the appropriate policy response to the crisis extends beyond tougher international regulations to smarter requirements combined with effective political and financial leadership (IMF 2009). This is because as evidenced in the crisis, the banking sector which is already highly regulated proved vulnerable to the systemic shock which has been attributed to lack of coordination and adequate communication in the sector. Consequently the government and financial regulators should aim at restoring the market disciplines, address the fiscal risks posed by systemic institutions, and restoring the level and q uality of bank capital in order to avoid such crisis from occurring in the future (IMF 2009). In addition, the role of international financial regulation should be delegated to both major and developing economies in order to promote efficiency and avoid conflict of interests. Reference List Canster Cannex, 2011. Global Financial Crisis-What Caused It And How The World Responded? Web. International Monetary Fund, 2009. Global Financial Stability Report: 40095. Washington D. C., International Monetary Fund. Lazarov, M., 2009. The Global Financial Crisis 2007-2008: Crisis of Human Knowledge and Government Intervention. Web. Obersteiner, T. Schemes To Asset Relief Measures and Restructuring Plans: EU State Aid Policy And Banking Institutes During The Financial Crisis. Germany, GRIN Verlag. Taylor, B. J., 2008. Financial Crisis and the Policy Responses: An Empirical Analysis of What Went Wrong. Web. Tindall, K., 2009. Framing the Global Economic Downturn: Crisis Rhetoric and the Politics of Recession. Australia, ANU E Press. Zimmermann, H., 2010. Global Finance in Crisis: The Politics of International Regulatory Change. New York, Taylor and Francis.